Located in Dengfeng City, Zhengzhou, Henan Province, China, Shaolin Temple was founded in 495 AD during the Northern Wei Dynasty by Emperor Xiaowen to accommodate the Indian monk Buddhabhadra (Batło) who came to preach Buddhism. Nestled deep within the dense forest of Mount Shaoshi in the Songshan Mountain range, the temple takes its name from its location: “Shao” from Mount Shaoshi and “Lin” meaning forest.
1. Historical Significance Shaolin Temple holds a prominent place in the history of Chinese Buddhism. In 527 AD, Bodhidharma (Damo), the legendary founder of Chan (Zen) Buddhism, meditated facing a wall at Shaolin for nine years, thus establishing it as the cradle of Chinese Chan Buddhism. In the early Tang Dynasty, thirteen Shaolin warrior monks helped Li Shimin (later Emperor Taizong) in battle, gaining imperial favor and earning the temple its title as “The Most Famous Temple Under Heaven.” Shaolin martial arts flourished thereafter. In 1983, it was designated a National Key Buddhist Temple and later recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a top-rated (5A) tourist destination in China.
2. Geographic Location Shaolin Temple is located 12 km northwest of Dengfeng City, at the foot of the Wuru Peak of Mount Shaoshi, part of the Songshan Mountains in central China.
3. Architectural Layout The main temple complex covers approximately 57,600 square meters, aligned along a central axis with seven courtyards, preserving architectural elements from the Song, Ming, and Qing dynasties.
Key structures include:
Mountain Gate (built in 1735, inscribed by Emperor Kangxi)
Hall of Heavenly Kings (housing statues of the Four Heavenly Kings)
Mahavira Hall (rebuilt in 1986, dedicated to the Three-Body Buddha)
Bell and Drum Towers (rebuilt in 1994 and 1996 respectively)
Standing in Snow Pavilion (associated with the legend of Huike severing his arm in search of enlightenment)
Thousand Buddha Hall (home to rare Tang Dynasty murals)
To the west lies Pagoda Forest, the largest ancient tower complex in China, with over 230 stone pagodas dating from the Tang to Qing Dynasties, spanning more than 20,000 square meters.
4. Cultural Significance and Global Impact Shaolin Temple is globally renowned for its integration of Zen (Chan), martial arts, and traditional medicine. The phrase “All martial arts under Heaven originate from Shaolin” reflects its legendary status. Initially developed for physical training during meditation, Shaolin Kung Fu evolved into a complete martial arts system. The temple preserves over 500 Ming-era murals and numerous inscriptions and steles from the Tang and Song periods, offering immense historical value.
5. Historical Development Timeline
A. Formation and Early Growth (Northern Wei to Tang Dynasty)
495 AD: Founded by Emperor Xiaowen to house Indian monk Buddhabhadra.
6th Century: Bodhidharma allegedly meditated for nine years, founding Chan Buddhism. Legends like “Crossing the Yangtze on a Reed” and “Standing in Snow” originate here.
Tang Dynasty: Imperial grants and recognition after Shaolin monks aided Emperor Taizong in battle; Shaolin Kung Fu gains prestige.
B. Evolution During Song and Yuan Dynasties
Song Dynasty: Chan Buddhism flourishes. Martial arts integrated with Zen practices, forming the tradition of “Zen and Martial Arts as One.”
Yuan Dynasty: The temple receives imperial patronage; over 2,000 monks reside here. Japanese monks travel to Shaolin, spreading its teachings abroad.
C. Prosperity and Decline (Ming and Qing Dynasties)
Ming Dynasty: Shaolin martial arts reach their peak. Monks join battles against pirates and rebels. Present-day architecture largely stems from this era.
Qing Dynasty: Mixed imperial attitudes toward Shaolin. Late Qing chaos and war lead to the temple’s decline.
D. Modern Destruction and Rebirth (20th Century)
1928: Warlord Shi Yousan’s forces burn down large parts of the temple, including the Mahavira Hall and Sutra Pavilion.
Post-1949: The temple lies dormant but martial arts traditions survive among the people. The 1982 film Shaolin Temple reignites global interest.
E. Contemporary Revival and Globalization (1980s to Present)
1987: Religious activities resume; the temple undergoes restoration. Abbot Shi Yongxin spearheads modernization and heritage protection.
Global Outreach: Shaolin establishes cultural centers abroad (e.g., USA, Germany), teaches martial arts and Chan, and forms international discipleship networks.
Controversies: Commercialization and branding raise concerns, yet also enhance global visibility.
Key Symbols:
Martial Arts: 72 secret techniques, Yi Jin Jing, staff methods
Zen Buddhism: A spiritual lineage rooted in meditation
Architecture and Art: Pagoda Forest, murals, and steles contribute to Shaolin’s designation as a World Heritage site
Shaolin Temple’s legacy mirrors the sinicization of Buddhism and the intersection of religion, politics, and culture. Today, it stands as a living symbol of Chinese spiritual heritage and a global ambassador of Kung Fu.
The Evolution of Shaolin Kung Fu
The development of Shaolin Kung Fu follows four primary stages: Germination, Formation, Peak, and Transformation. Its core philosophy blends Zen and martial arts, transitioning through practical combat, performance, and health cultivation.
1. Germination Period (Northern Wei to Sui Dynasty) Monks like Huiguang and Sengchou were already skilled fighters. Martial practices began as means of exercise and temple defense, integrating with local practices like breathwork and grappling.
2. Formation Period (Tang to Song Dynasty) During the Sui-Tang transition, 13 Shaolin monks aided the Tang court, earning official recognition. In the Song Dynasty, monks like the “Zunsheng Unit” fought against invaders, formalizing techniques like staff combat.
3. Peak Period (Ming to Early Qing Dynasty) Shaolin martial arts thrived over 300 years:
Monks fought pirates and rebels, refining their techniques.
Masters like Yu Dayou shared martial wisdom, enhancing Shaolin’s system.
Systems expanded to include boxing, staff, sword, qigong, and agility.
Abbot Xue Ting Fuyu institutionalized martial practice within temple law, ensuring generational transmission.
4. Transformation Period (Late Qing to Present)
1928: The temple was destroyed by fire; martial monks scattered.
Post-1949: Martial arts taught in schools; cultural value preserved.
1980s–Today: Kung Fu becomes global through film, international schools, and cultural diplomacy.
Summary: Shaolin Kung Fu began as a way for monks to stay fit and protect the temple, rose to fame through royal favor, matured through battlefield experience and religious structure, and transformed into a globally recognized symbol of Chinese culture and heritage.
Ancient Bamboo Weaving: Techniques and Pattern Systems
Bamboo weaving, an ancient craft dating back to the Neolithic era, reflects humanity’s reverence for nature and the wisdom to reshape it. From daily household items to spiritual totems, countless forms emerge through the rhythmic interplay of warp and weft. This article explores the core techniques and symbolic motifs of traditional bamboo weaving, drawing from historical roots while examining notable global case studies. Through this lens, we uncover how this age-old craft continues to evolve in contemporary life—both as cultural heritage and as a source of creative innovation.
Part 1: The Structural Foundation – Techniques of Ancient Bamboo Weaving
1. Warp-Weft Weaving: The Fundamental Skeleton
Plain Weaving (One-over-one):
This is the most basic and widely used technique. Vertical bamboo strips (warp) are fixed while horizontal strips (weft) are woven alternately over and under to form dense, uniform surfaces or cylindrical structures. Commonly used for mats, baskets, and base structures. Data shows that over 70% of practical bamboo products (e.g., storage baskets, placemats) on platforms like Amazon, Etsy, and Taobao utilize plain weaving or its simple variations.
Twill Weaving (Two-over-two, Three-over-three):
The weft crosses over two or more warps in a diagonal pattern, creating a slanted visual texture. It offers enhanced aesthetic appeal with a looser structure. Often used for decorative bands on basket bodies.
Case Study – Dongyang, China:
Master artisan He Fuli from Dongyang creates intricate multilayer twill patterns using dyed bamboo strands to produce vivid landscape and figure imagery. His artworks are highly valued in international art auctions.
By altering the over-under sequence (e.g., alternating one-over-two with two-over-one), geometric motifs like herringbone, squared spirals, and endless knots are created—serving both decorative and structural purposes.
Case Study – Japan:
The traditional Japanese “Kakuro” bamboo boxes showcase precise geometric patterns through advanced plain weave variations, reflecting Japanese craftsmanship’s pursuit of order and exactitude. Such designs have a steady demand in Western luxury home decor markets.
2. Spiral Coiling: Rhythmic Expansion from the Center
A thick core (e.g., rattan, bamboo strips) is used as the axis, tightly wrapped with finer bamboo fibers in a spiraling motion. This results in stable, lightweight, round or oval forms.
Global Examples:
Spiral coiling appears in indigenous crafts across continents—from African grain baskets to Native American containers. On platforms like Pinterest and Instagram, coiled bamboo lampshades and vases are popular in “Wabi-Sabi” inspired interiors due to their warm, rustic charm.
3. Hexagonal Weaving: Inspired by the Honeycomb
Utilizing three sets of bamboo strips (two parallel, one at a 60° angle), this method creates hexagonal holes. It’s light, breathable, and elastic—ideal for sieves, filters, lampshades, and hat frames (like Vietnam’s conical hats).
Case Study – Vietnam’s Non La:
The iconic Vietnamese conical hat uses fine hexagonal weaving at its core, ensuring ventilation and ultra-lightweight comfort. According to the Ministry of Industry and Trade, Vietnam’s bamboo and rattan exports are growing steadily, with conical hats as a key product.
4. Twining: Interlaced Strength
Two or more weft strips twist around each other like a rope as they pass through the warp. The result is a tightly bound, highly durable fabric—ideal for basket rims, waists, and load-bearing areas like straps.
Case Study – Southwest China:
In mountainous regions of Sichuan and Hunan, traditional carrying baskets (back baskets) often feature twined reinforcements at stress points. This “functional aesthetics” is being revisited in modern outdoor and sustainable product design.
5. Splint Insertion & Reinforcement: Building the Skeleton
Broad bamboo splints are inserted into the warp-weft mesh during or after weaving to reinforce the frame, shape the outline, segment compartments, or add visual lines. Frequently used in large containers and furniture frames (e.g., bamboo chair backs).
Case Study – Ming & Qing Furniture:
Traditional Chinese bamboo furniture often uses this method to balance strength and visual openness. In modern “New Chinese” furniture design, this technique is widely adapted for both aesthetics and structure.
6. Bamboo Wrapping on Porcelain: A Perfect Fusion
A top-tier technique native to Chengdu, Sichuan. Ultra-fine bamboo threads (thin as hair) are tightly woven over pre-formed porcelain vessels (e.g., teapots, vases) using plain or special weaves. The wrapping is seamless, covering the entire body with no visible joints.
Case Study – Chengdu, China:
Master artisans have created state-level “national gift” bamboo-wrapped porcelain tea sets valued at tens of thousands of RMB. The process—bamboo selection, slicing, splitting, and weaving—is digitally documented for heritage preservation and premium customization.
Part 2: Patterns That Speak – The Symbolic Vocabulary of Bamboo Weaving
Bamboo weaving motifs go far beyond ornamentation — they are visual embodiments of cultural beliefs, religious symbolism, and auspicious wishes.
1. Universal Auspicious Patterns
Swastika (卍):
An ancient and widespread symbol of blessing, representing the sun, fire, eternity, and universal good fortune. Widely found in bamboo artifacts across Buddhist-influenced regions, often repeated as border designs or central motifs. Big data (museum collections, auction records) shows that antique bamboo artifacts featuring the swastika pattern—such as scripture boxes and offering baskets—carry greater cultural and collectible value.
Longevity Character (寿):
Stylized forms of the Chinese character for longevity (often seen in “Hundred Longevity” variations) dominate birthday and blessing themes. Often combined with bats (symbolizing “Fu” or fortune), peaches (immortality), and cranes (long life).
Case Study – Southern China:
From the Qing Dynasty to the Republic era, exquisite birthday gift baskets in Jiangnan often featured a large “寿” character woven on the lid, accompanied by bats and floral scrolls — a visual wish for longevity and happiness. These are frequently seen in folk museums and private collections.
Endless Knot (盘长纹):
Originating from Buddhist iconography (one of the “Eight Auspicious Symbols”), this interlocking, infinite loop symbolizes continuity and eternity. Commonly used as a central motif or connecting element in bamboo patterns.
Case Study – Temple Implements:
Ritual bamboo items such as offering trays and incense altars in Buddhist temples often bear the endless knot pattern, symbolizing infinite Dharma and enduring wisdom. Widely used in Buddhist communities across Southeast Asia.
Double Diamond (方胜纹):
Two overlapping rhombuses forming a stable and elegant structure. Represents unity, harmony, and auspiciousness. Frequently seen in window lattices, food box lids, and decorative bands.
Case Study – East Asian Architecture and Craft:
In traditional Chinese residences (e.g., Huizhou dwellings), and in Japanese/Korean bento box lids, the double diamond is a classic element reflecting an aesthetic of order and balance.
Coin Pattern (铜钱纹):
Mimicking traditional Chinese coins strung together, it represents wealth and prosperity. Often used in continuous repeat designs.
Case Study – Commercial Artifacts:
Old-time money chests, ledger boxes, and signage frames in shops often featured this motif to invoke thriving business. The pattern is still used in modern “Neo-Chinese” commercial space design.
Bat Motif (蝙蝠):
In Chinese, “bat” (蝠) sounds like “blessing” (福). Bats appear in literal or abstract form, sometimes surrounding a longevity character or peach in the popular “Five Bats for Longevity” composition.
Case Study – Celebratory Bamboo Goods:
Bamboo baskets for weddings and festival lanterns traditionally featured bat motifs for good fortune. “Bamboo Bat Decoration” is now a trending keyword on global platforms for Chinese-style home decor.
2. Longevity-Specific Motifs
Often used in combination with the Longevity character:
Crane: Represents long life, grace, and nobility. Seen standing or in flight, often near the lid or sides.
Turtle: Symbolizes longevity, stability, and wisdom. Typically woven into basket sides or bases.
Pine and Cypress: Evergreen trees that symbolize endurance and longevity; often appear as border or background elements.
Peach of Immortality: The divine peach from Xi Wangmu’s garden, a central motif in longevity gifts.
Gourd (Calabash): Phonetically associated with “fortune and prosperity” (福禄); shape resembles the Chinese character for “auspicious.” Also tied to Taoist immortals and healing.
Case Study – Qing Dynasty Bamboo Box:
A birthday gift box may feature a central giant peach motif on its lid, surrounded by five bats (Five Blessings), pine-crane longevity on the sides, endless knot patterns on the handles, and a hidden tortoise shell design at the base — a masterful blend of folk belief and craftsmanship.
3. Feng Shui & Esoteric Patterns
Infused with cosmological and metaphysical meaning, these motifs are believed to attract good fortune and repel evil.
Bagua (Eight Trigrams): The core cosmological system of the I Ching, representing the elemental forces of the universe. A central design in Feng Shui discs and protective household objects.
Taiji Symbol (Yin-Yang): Symbol of duality and unity. Often at the center of Bagua or used in amulets and car hangings.
Seven Stars (Big Dipper Pattern): Reflects the constellation believed in Taoism to hold spiritual power. Used to enhance fortune and deflect misfortune.
Talismanic Characters: Taoist symbols or characters such as “令” (Command) and “雷” (Thunder) believed to hold spiritual energy, often woven into protective plaques or ritual tools.
Auspicious Beasts:
Dragon: Power and prosperity
Kirin (Qilin): Kindness, fertility
Pixiu: Wealth and protection These are often woven into Feng Shui ornaments and strategically placed to optimize energy flow.
Case Study – Southeast Asian Feng Shui Goods:
In overseas Chinese communities (Singapore, Malaysia, Indonesia), bamboo Feng Shui items — such as Bagua discs, Pixiu ornaments, and Seven-Star plates — are in high demand. Online reviews on Lazada and Shopee frequently mention keywords like “energy” and “prosperity.” In Bali, Indonesia, local deities and symbols are often woven into talismanic bamboo charms for both domestic use and tourism.
Part 3: A Global Perspective – The Cross-Cultural Symphony of Bamboo Weaving
Big data reveals the vibrant diversity and vitality of bamboo weaving traditions across the globe:
1. East Asia: Pinnacle of Craft and Cultural Integration
China:
A master of both technique and symbolism, with distinct regional styles — e.g., Dongyang’s intricate weaving, Sichuan’s porcelain-core wrapping, Anhui’s Shu seats, and Yiyang’s aquatic bamboo mats. Backed by a comprehensive intangible cultural heritage protection system and a massive bamboo industry (valued in the hundreds of billions of RMB, according to the China Bamboo Industry Association), traditional crafts are seeing a new renaissance. E-commerce platforms like JD.com and Tmall report consistent sales growth in tea sets, stationery, and home goods that incorporate traditional woven motifs.
Japan:
Home to exquisite craftsmanship and Wabi-Sabi aesthetics. Renowned for “Takezaiku” (bamboo fine craft), particularly ikebana vases and tea ceremony items. Patterns are minimalist and Zen-inspired. Works by masters like the late Iizuka Rōkansai command high value in international art markets. Analytics show a year-on-year rise in museum visitors and media coverage of Japanese bamboo exhibitions in Europe and the U.S.
Korea:
Combines practicality with aesthetic appeal. Traditional bamboo items like nang baskets feature simple geometric patterns. Recent innovations fuse these techniques into modern lifestyle products, earning recognition in the K-Design movement.
2. Southeast Asia: Land of Materials and Living Art
Vietnam:
The iconic Non La conical hat uses hexagonal weaving. Bamboo furniture and lighting exports are strong (per Vietnamese customs data), often blending French colonial motifs with indigenous natural patterns such as palm leaf designs.
Thailand, Myanmar, Laos, Cambodia:
Deeply influenced by Buddhist culture. Bamboo monk bowls, offering trays, and temple decorations often feature lotus, Dharma wheels, and auspicious elephants. Daily-use items like the Kratip sticky rice baskets from Northeast Thailand feature modest but meaningful designs. Eco-tourism is helping revive these traditional crafts.
Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia:
Rich tropical style with bold colors and patterns inspired by flora, fauna, and tribal totems. Large-scale bamboo structures (gazebos, bridges) are globally admired — the architecture itself becomes an immersive pattern.
3. Europe, North America & Australia: Design Innovation Meets Sustainability
Europe (Denmark, Netherlands, France, etc.):
Designer-driven movements blend bamboo with Nordic minimalism and modernist aesthetics. There’s strong emphasis on structural innovation and sustainability (bamboo’s carbon footprint is far lower than plastics or metals). Danish designer Poul Henningsen famously used bamboo shades in his PH lamp series. Trend agencies like WGSN identify “natural woven materials” as a persistent home décor trend.
North America:
Influenced by both Native American basketry and Asian immigrant craftsmanship. In contemporary art, bamboo is a key medium for exploring materiality, space, and cultural identity. Giant bamboo installations by California-based artists go viral on Instagram for their organic beauty.
Australia:
Draws from Asian and Pacific Islander techniques. Emphasizes outdoor resilience and natural aesthetics. Bamboo weaving is finding broader applications in green architecture and landscape design.
4. Africa & Latin America: Indigenous Wisdom and Livelihood
Africa (Ethiopia, Ghana, Rwanda, etc.):
Bamboo weaving is a vital livelihood and domestic skill. Techniques are often bold and utilitarian, with geometric or culturally symbolic patterns. Organizations like INBAR (International Bamboo and Rattan Organization) are promoting local industries to boost market value and global presence.
Latin America (Colombia, Ecuador, etc.):
The Andes region has a rich tradition of cane and bamboo weaving, known as cestería. Works are vividly colorful, often with geometric or pre-Columbian influences. Fair Trade organizations support artisans in reaching international buyers and sustaining cultural continuity.
Part 4: Future Trends Revealed by Big Data
1. Eco-Friendly Materials as Global Frontiers
Driven by global plastic bans and carbon neutrality goals, bamboo — a fast-growing, biodegradable, and renewable resource — is widely recognized for its environmental value (e.g., carbon sequestration capacity). Bamboo weaving shows massive potential in replacing plastic packaging, utensils, and household items. Numerous startups in this field are seeing active rounds of investment and growth.
2. Contemporary Interpretations of Traditional Craft
Designers and artisans are collaborating more deeply than ever, using data analytics to identify consumer preferences (such as color, utility, and style). Traditional techniques like hexagonal weaving and twining, along with abstracted motifs such as the Swastika or geometric “Shou” symbols, are being translated into modern lamps, furniture, fashion accessories (bamboo handbags, hats), and even tech gadget shells. Online design platforms such as Behance and Pinterest are rich with such innovation case studies.
3. Cultural IP and High-End Customization
Certain bamboo motifs rich in cultural symbolism — royal patterns, Feng Shui diagrams, or signature weaving methods by renowned masters — are emerging as intellectual property (IP) in luxury markets and collectible art. Blockchain technology is being employed to certify authenticity and trace origin.
4. Tech Empowerment and Global Education
Advanced technologies such as 3D scanning/modeling are preserving endangered weaving techniques and motifs. VR/AR is used for immersive teaching experiences. Online platforms like YouTube and Skillshare significantly lower the barrier for learning bamboo weaving, fueling a growing global community of enthusiasts.
5. Therapeutic and Wellness Value
The natural antibacterial and humidity-regulating properties of bamboo, combined with the meditative concentration required in weaving (akin to mindfulness practices), are attracting attention in the wellness industry. Bamboo woven products like mats and cushions, as well as hands-on weaving workshops, are rising in popularity. Related keyword searches (e.g., on Google Trends) show a clear upward trajectory.
Conclusion: Weaving the Past into the Future
Between the warp and weft of ancient bamboo weaving lies more than just utilitarian form — embedded within is a spiritual blueprint of humanity’s aspirations for blessings, harmony, and cosmic connection. From the simplest over-under pattern to the intricate mysticism of Feng Shui diagrams; from longevity baskets in Jiangnan, China, to protective talismans in Bali, and even designer lamps in Denmark — bamboo weaving and its symbolic motifs traverse borders, retaining distinct cultural genes while continually merging with modern design, technology, and ecological ideals.
Big data not only sharpens our understanding of this cultural heritage’s breadth and depth but also illuminates its boundless potential in sustainable development and the creative economy. Bamboo weaving — an ancient craft born of primal wisdom — is writing a new chapter in the 21st century. Flexible yet resilient, it is no longer just an echo of the past, but a green bridge to the future.
Jingtailan, formally known as Cloisonné Enamel on Copper, is also referred to as inlaid enamel. This intricate art involves shaping soft, flat copper wires into ornate patterns on a copper body, then filling the patterns with colored enamel glaze and firing the piece at high temperatures.
The craft flourished during the Ming Dynasty’s Jingtai reign, a period in which the technique matured and reached new heights. Due to the frequent use of peacock blue and sapphire blue enamels, the art gained the poetic and widely recognized name “Jingtailan”, literally meaning “Blue of Jingtai.”
Guanfu Museum – The Light of Craftsmanship – Cloisonne Exhibition
It is now widely accepted that Jingtailan was introduced to China from the Western Regions during the Yuan Dynasty. Upon its arrival, it quickly merged with traditional Chinese culture and evolved into a distinct and refined art form—a true act of cultural reinvention.
By the Ming Dynasty, this craftsmanship had reached its golden age. It was during this time that the emperor decreed it to be reserved exclusively for the imperial court—a privilege known as “palace exclusivity.” From that moment on, Jingtailan began its destined journey as an extraordinary art form reserved solely for royal use.
Cloisonné Censer with Intertwined Lotus Motif, Yuan Dynasty Collection of the Palace Museum, Beijing
Throughout the dynastic transitions of the Yuan, Ming, and Qing periods, generations of skilled and diligent artisans shaped the brilliant legacy of Jingtailan with their own hands. Through their craftsmanship, this art form blossomed into a shining symbol of Chinese cultural identity, renowned both at home and abroad for its distinct national style and profound cultural meaning. It is through their efforts that Jingtailan was elevated from craft to cultural heritage.
Cloisonné Zun Vase with Intertwined Lotus and Twin Lion Handles, Late Ming Dynasty Copper-body with cloisonné enamel Collection of the Guanfu Museum Cloisonné Incense Burner with Intertwined Lotus and Triple-Sacrificial Knob, Ming Xuande Period Copper-body with cloisonné enamel, double-handled Collection of the Guanfu Museum Cloisonné Quail Figurine, Copper-Body, Qing Dynasty, Qianlong Period Collection of the Guanfu Museum Large Cloisonné Ice Chest with Baoxiang Floral Motif, Qing Dynasty, Qianlong Period Collection of the Shenyang Palace Museum Cloisonné Floral Gu Vase with Intertwined Lotus and Flanged Rim, Ming Jingtai Period Copper-body with cloisonné enamel Collection of the Guanfu Museum
Cloisonné enamel is, in fact, a craft of foreign origin. In the early Ming Dynasty, Cao Zhao recorded in his seminal work Ge Gu Yao Lun (Essential Criteria of Antiquities), under the entry “Dashi Kiln” (Arabian Ware):
“Made with a copper body and decorated with colorful floral patterns fired using mineral glazes… similar to Falang (foreign inlays).”
After this technique was introduced into China, it quickly gained favor among the Chinese people. Enthusiasts and artisans began to study and replicate the craft, eventually refining and developing it into a uniquely Chinese art form.
The Radiance of Craftsmanship: Jingtailan Cloisonné Exhibition
Artisans shaped sheets of purple copper into vessel bodies by hammering with simple tools, then carefully bent thin copper wires by hand to form intricate patterns of flowers and other motifs. Using small spatulas, they filled each cloisonné cell with vibrant enamel glazes, and then fired the pieces in kilns to fuse the enamel onto the copper base.
The final steps involved polishing—using a foot-powered wheel and natural abrasives like sandstone and charcoal, all done by hand to bring out the piece’s smooth, lustrous finish.
In countless workshops across the capital and its outskirts, these craftsmen devoted themselves to every stage of the process: body forming, wire setting, enamel filling, and polishing. With tireless hands and unwavering dedication, they gave rise to the brilliant cultural legacy of Jingtailan.
Cutting Copper Sheets Hammering the Copper Body Bending Copper Wires into Decorative Patterns Adhering the Copper Wires to the Base Filling the Cloisonné Cells with Enamel (Enameling) Firing the Enamel in the Kiln Polishing the Surface Gilding
The cloisonné craftsmanship of the Qing Dynasty showed notable advancements compared to that of the Ming Dynasty. The copper bodies became thinner, the wires more delicate, and the enamel colors more vivid and vibrant. Surfaces were smoother, free of pitting, and the patterns grew increasingly intricate and diverse. However, the decorative motifs, while refined, often lacked the expressive vitality seen in Ming-era designs.
The peak of Qing cloisonné artistry occurred during the reigns of Kangxi, Yongzheng, and Qianlong. Among them, the Qianlong period marked a particularly glorious era, with imperial support driving technical excellence and stylistic richness. In fact, the majority of surviving cloisonné pieces seen today originate from these three reigns.
Lama Pagoda with Taotie Motif in Inlaid Enamel, Qing Dynasty Collection of the Shanghai Museum Bowl with Floral Scrolls and Inscriptions in Painted Enamel on Copper, Qing Dynasty, Jiaqing Period Collection of the Guanfu Museum Painted Enamel “Three Rams Bring Bliss” Jardinière with Wa-Style Corners, Late Qing Dynasty Collection of the Shenyang Palace Museum Pomegranate-Shaped Vase with Cloisonné Enamel and Chased Copper Body, Qing Dynasty, Qianlong Period Collection of the Guanfu Museum Cloisonné Brush Rest with Double Dragons and Sea Wave Motif, Qing Dynasty, Qianlong Period Collection of the Shenyang Palace Museum
From Enamel Blue to Imperial Glory: Recasting Splendor
“Mountains stretch a hundred miles clad in pure hues;
White-haired elders gather at jade-filled feasts.
Honor age, not rank or birth,
Bow to the long-browed, blessed with years.
Marvel not at sovereign and subject, both in vigor—
In the year 1722, after sixty years of reign, Emperor Kangxi hosted a grand imperial banquet in the Palace of Heavenly Purity on the first day of the Lunar New Year to honor the elderly of the realm. He composed this poem, “Verses for the Banquet of a Thousand Elders”, to commemorate the occasion, giving rise to the name Qianshou Yan (Banquet of a Thousand Elders).
During the flourishing era of Kangxi and Qianlong, a golden age lasting over 130 years, the Qianshou Banquet was held four times — twice by Kangxi, and twice by Qianlong.
In 1795, the 60th year of Qianlong’s reign, the 85-year-old emperor announced at the Palace of Diligent Governance in Yuanmingyuan that he would abdicate in favor of his 15th son, Prince Jia of the First Rank, Yongyan, who would ascend the throne as Emperor Jiaqing the following year.
On New Year’s Day, 1796, the year of Bingchen, Emperor Qianlong presided over the grand abdication ceremony at the Hall of Supreme Harmony, passing on the imperial seal. Jiaqing was enthroned, and Qianlong became the Retired Emperor.
Just a few days later, on the fourth day of the New Year, the now-retired “Perfect Elder” (Shiquan Laoren) held the final and most magnificent Qianshou Banquet at the Hall of Imperial Supremacy in the Palace of Tranquil Longevity (Ningshougong). The halls were filled with long-living elders — a rare and glorious gathering.
At this banquet, each elderly attendee was presented with a silver longevity plaque, decorated with auspicious ruyi cloud patterns. These plaques varied in weight depending on age, with many as heavy as ten taels. At the time, they held equivalent monetary value to silver, and over the centuries, most were melted down for reuse. Surviving examples are now exceedingly rare, and their historical and cultural significance is beyond measure.
Imperial Silver Longevity Plaque Bestowed by the Retired Emperor, Qianlong Period, Qing Dynasty Inscription: “Bestowed by the Retired Emperor” (Tai Shang Huang Di Yu Ci Yang Lao) Collection of the Guanfu Museum
The Song Dynasty (960–1279) is widely regarded as the golden age of Chinese ceramics. Unlike the vibrant opulence of Tang Dynasty pottery, Song porcelain is known for its understated elegance, quiet beauty, and profound cultural depth.
At the heart of Song ceramic artistry are the Five Great Kilns — Ru, Guan, Ge, Ding, and Jun — each representing a distinct aesthetic and craftsmanship:
Ru Kiln: Revered for its soft, jade-like blue glaze, Ru porcelain is extremely rare and historically reserved for the imperial court. It is often praised as “blue as the sky, and smooth as jade.”
Guan Kiln: Made exclusively for the palace, Guan ware features a thick glaze with beautiful crackled patterns, embodying refined elegance and nobility.
Ge Kiln: Distinguished by its “golden threads and iron wires” — a unique double crackle pattern. The natural, intersecting veins make each piece a work of abstract beauty.
Ding Kiln: Known for its ivory-white glaze and delicately incised or molded decorations. Ding ware exemplifies symmetry, purity, and grace.
Jun Kiln: Famous for its flamboyant “transmutation” glaze, producing spontaneous blends of reds, blues, and purples. Each piece is one-of-a-kind, like a splash of color frozen in time.
The 280 million yuan Chicken-glazed Cup, the 114 million yuan Southern Song Dynasty official kiln octagonal vase, the 230 million yuan Yuan Dynasty blue and white Guiguzi Descending the Mountain jar: behind these artworks worth over 100 million yuan there is the shadow of a common Jewish antique tycoon – Giuseppe Eskenazi.White porcelain plate-mouthed vaseWhite porcelain carving bowlBlack glaze bowlSauce glaze bowlWhite porcelain carved flower plateWhite porcelain plate with dragon patternSauce glaze saucerWhite porcelain carved flower cupWhite porcelain bowl with dragon patternSoy sauce glaze small mouth bottleGreen glaze lidded box with peony patternCeladon covered bowlGreen-glazed two-ear jarCeladon glazed water bowlSky blue glaze bowlSky blue glaze purple spot bowlPurple glaze small incense burnerBlack glaze plum vase with white linesBlack glazed jar with handleWhite background with black flowers on plum vaseBlack glaze rust pattern jade vaseBlack glaze bowl with partridge patternBlack Partridge Spotted BottleSmall-mouthed vase with peony patternGreen peony vaseBlack wood leaf bowlBlack oil dripping bowlBlack-glazed plum vase with phoenix patternGreen glaze sunflower-shaped plate
In 2008, the craft of Tibetan incense making was officially included in China’s second batch of national intangible cultural heritage.
Tibetan incense has been cherished since ancient times. Known in Tibet as a rare “Heavenly Wood” from the sacred snow mountains, it is not only regarded as a supreme offering in Buddhist rituals but also honored in traditional Tibetan medicine as a form of “minor agarwood.”
Legend has it that in the 7th century, Tibetan minister Thonmi Sambhota created Tibetan incense under the guidance of Tibetan medical theories. This gave rise to a 1,300-year-old heritage of hand-ground incense craftsmanship that has since spread widely.
Even in the Chinese classic Dream of the Red Chamber, there are depictions of Tibetan incense use. When Shi Chun copied the Heart Sutra for Grandmother Jia, her maid specifically brought out a bundle of Tibetan incense, saying, “This is lit while copying scriptures.” Lin Daiyu, too, would ask her maid Ziju to light Tibetan incense whenever she wrote scriptures.
The Art and Ingredients of Tibetan Incense
Tibetan incense is made from over 20 carefully selected precious Tibetan medicinal herbs such as sandalwood, white silverwood, saffron, snow lotus, and cloves. All materials are naturally sourced from their places of origin and follow ancient traditional methods. Herbs are crushed in stone troughs, kneaded into incense paste, and extruded through perforated yak horns, then sun-dried under the golden light of the Tibetan plateau. The entire process demands extraordinary skill, patience, and a purified heart.
During production, artisans purify their hands, tools, and minds. As a result, the incense not only soothes the body but also calms the soul. When people burn Tibetan incense as an offering, their hearts naturally become serene, devout, and benevolent.
Medicinal Value and Everyday Use
Tibetan incense has long been used for domestic health and spiritual protection. A poetic line reads:
“Wards off evil and cold, clears filth and plague.”
It is believed to prevent illness and enhance physical and mental well-being.
As a branch of Tibetan medicine, incense benefits major organs and is considered a completely natural, green product.
Medicinal effects include:
Detoxification, antibacterial, antiviral
Eliminates airborne pathogens and purifies the air
In Tibetan medical history, incense played an important role in epidemic prevention. For example, in the 15th century, Tibetan doctors used incense-based remedies to curb widespread infections affecting infants in Lhasa, Shigatse, and Shannan.
Even today, burning incense at home is recommended for air purification and mild viral prevention. While not 100% protective, it contributes to a cleaner and healthier indoor environment.
Sacred Offering in Vajrayana Practice
In Tibetan Vajrayana Buddhism, incense is not just an aromatic product—it is a sacred offering to the Three Jewels (the Guru, Buddha, and Dharma). It is believed to:
Attract blessings and protection from enlightened beings
Purify negative karma and uphold discipline
Quickly accumulate merit and wisdom
Support meditation and spiritual insight
Help practitioners accomplish their goals swiftly
Tibetan incense follows the combined wisdom of Tibetan craftsmanship and medicine, incorporating ancient formulas from Tibetan masters and Guru Padmasambhava. Crafted from natural ingredients like saffron, sandalwood, and clove, it undergoes multiple processes including grinding, blending, and fermenting—resulting in a product that embodies the essence of Tibetan culture.
For Vajrayana practitioners, incense serves as:
A sacred offering to the Guru and deities
A method to purify ritual spaces and eliminate obstacles
A means to bring joy to deities and guide sentient beings
A spiritual aid for refining the body, breath, and mind
The act of burning incense carries profound spiritual significance and tangible benefits. Tibetan incense is both a sacred ritual tool and a symbol of cultural heritage. Rooted in tradition yet relevant today, it continues to bring peace, clarity, and healing to modern life.
Exploring the Charm and Wisdom of Chinese Folding Fan Culture
When it comes to Chinese fans, there’s a saying: “With a fan in hand, I possess the world.” Today, let us step into this world full of wisdom and artistry, and explore the enduring charm of the folding fan—from its origins and evolution to its craftsmanship and fan surface artistry.
01 — Origins and Evolution of the Folding Fan: A Thousand-Year Legacy from Elegance to Everyday Life
The folding fan boasts a long history, with its origins tracing back to the Western Han Dynasty. At that time, it was a symbol of elegance and status among the nobility. Over centuries, it has become a household item cherished by many.
Through thousands of years of evolution, the folding fan has not only served as a practical tool for cooling during hot summers, but also become an important cultural symbol in traditional Chinese life.
During the Ming and Qing dynasties, regions like Zhejiang, Suzhou, and Sichuan became renowned for producing exquisite folding fans. It was during this time that inscribing poetry and painting on fans became popular, and Chinese folding fans began to spread overseas. Today, they are one of the most representative forms of Chinese traditional craftsmanship, beloved both at home and abroad.
02 — Fan Ribs: Structure, Craftsmanship, and Inheritance
The craftsmanship of the fan’s ribs reflects the ingenuity and precision of traditional artisanship. Each piece is a result of meticulous design, refined skills, and generations of cultural heritage—every rib tells a story of craftsmanship passed down through time.
03 — The Art of the Fan Surface: Painting and Calligraphy Across Eras
The fan surface is the soul of the folding fan. Across different historical periods, fan surfaces showcased a variety of artistic styles and aesthetic values.
In ancient times, fan paintings and calligraphy often featured landscapes, flowers and birds, or figures—delicate and elegant in composition, graceful and free-flowing in brushwork. These artworks not only hold significant artistic value, but also offer insight into the customs, emotions, and aesthetic preferences of their time.
In more recent eras, fan surface art has become increasingly diverse, with many works incorporating modern elements and creative expressions. These innovations, while preserving tradition, breathe new life into this timeless art form.
04 — Fan Collecting: A Taste for Elegance, An Eye for Treasure
Gently swaying a folding fan while discussing the past and present—this is both an aesthetic and cultural delight. For fan enthusiasts, collecting an exquisite folding fan is a source of joy.
However, fan collecting requires discernment and care. Recognizing high-quality fans demands a certain level of appreciation and the ability to distinguish authenticity and craftsmanship. Additionally, proper preservation is essential, as fans made of paper or bamboo are vulnerable to moisture and insects.
Most importantly, one must possess a genuine love for Chinese traditional culture. Only with this passion can we truly appreciate the beauty and depth of folding fan culture.
As a treasured emblem of Chinese heritage, the folding fan carries deep historical significance and artistic value. In this fast-paced modern world, let us slow down and take a moment to admire the elegance of a finely crafted folding fan. Perhaps, in the gentle sway of its motion, we can feel the refined grace and timeless wisdom of the ancients.
